In 1783, shortly following the American Revolution, George Washington resigned his commission as the commander-in-chief of the Continental Army, transitioning power to the American people to lead by civil authority.

George Washington’s decision to defer to civil rather than military authority helped establish America as a republic and set the precedent for future transitions of political power.

In a contentious election, four candidates⁠— Andrew Jackson, Henry Clay, William H. Crawford, and John Quincy Adams⁠— vied for the presidency. Jackson received the most electoral and popular votes, but failed to get a majority in the Electoral College. Per the 12th Amendment, the decision went to the House of Representatives for a vote. Only the top three candidates could be considered, so Clay was eliminated. He rallied behind John Quincy Adams, which helped Adams win the election. Andrew Jackson was furious and railed against the decision as a “corrupt bargain.”

While Congress followed constitutional procedures, the “corrupt bargain” was seen as subverting the democratic will of the people.

The major differences between the four political parties engaged in the 1860 election revolved around slavery, which was a deciding factor in the outcome. With 40% of the popular vote and a majority of electoral votes, Abraham Lincoln narrowly won the Presidency. Southern states refused to accept this outcome and a few weeks later South Carolina seceded from the Union. This created a domino effect of conflict and secessions, sparking the United States Civil War.

While presidential power transitioned peacefully, public pressures divided the nation and pushed the country to the breaking point. This election and the Civil War is a reminder that social division and the struggle for equity can quickly lead to unrest, violence and war.

As white Southerners protested against new rights and Constitutional power granted to African-Americans, widespread suppression of Black voters created questionable legality over the election results in Florida, Louisiana and South Carolina. Due to disrupted voting procedures, the results of the election between Rutherford B. Hayes and Samuel J. Tilden were not conclusive. Congress created a special “Election Commission” to decide. During many long secret meetings, Rutherford B. Hayes struck a deal with the Commission that would grant him the Presidency. By agreeing to the Compromise of 1877 to end Reconstruction in the South, Rutherford B. Hayes won the Presidency by one electoral vote.

The Compromise of 1877 ushered in the Jim Crow South, allowing white supremacy to underlie the political landscape and race relations. Its legacy highlights the need for enforced voting rights.

After the election of 1896, William Jennings Bryan started the tradition of conceding to the victor. In a telegram to the successful candidate, William McKinley, he said “...the returns indicate your election, and I hasten to extend my congratulations. We have submitted the issue to the American people and their will is law.”

While there is no requirement for a defeated presidential candidate to concede, Bryan’s submission to the will of the American people began an enduring courteous practice. The election of 2020 was the only exception in 124 years.

Public fear and confusion abounded in the hours after John F. Kennedy was assassinated. Adding to the confusion, the Constitution did not spell out how power would transition to a vice president in the event of a president’s death. Despite the chaos, approximately two hours after Kennedy’s death, Lyndon B. Johnson was sworn in as president. Former First Lady Jacqueline Kennedy was by his side, still wearing the suit covered in her husband’s blood. Photos documenting the event were circulated in order to show the American people that a legitimate transition of power had occurred.

The photos of Lyndon B. Johnson taking the oath of office speaks to the urgency of conducting a peaceful transition of power, especially at a time of chaos, confusion, and fear of further violence.

In 2000, candidate Al Gore won a 550,000 popular vote lead, but the final results came down to which candidate had won Florida’s electoral college votes. With the count too close to call, Florida mandated a complete recount. There were protests and a riot aimed at stopping the recount. The U.S. Supreme Court ruled the recount was unconstitutional because no clear standards were applied consistently to all ballots and that time had run out to fix the issue. The ruling halted the process with George W. Bush ahead in Florida, giving him enough electoral votes to secure the presidency.

The Supreme Court’s final decision called into question court intervention in elections and was seen as an ideological decision by a court divided along party lines. Many believed that it undermined the will of the people.

Joe Biden won the 2020 election by 7 million popular votes and 74 electoral votes. President Trump contested the election, filing legal challenges and holding rallies to garner support for his point of view. Following a speech by Trump on January 6, 2021, a crowd of his supporters stormed the U.S. Capitol, where they violently breached security and infiltrated the building in an attempt to dismantle the democratic process by stopping the election certification and threatening elected officials.

Donald Trump’s refusal to concede ended a tradition that had started with William Jennings Brown in 1896. The insurrection at the Capitol gave a glimpse of what happens if peaceful transitions of power, a bedrock of our democracy, falter.